Dreams in Song of Solomon, Narrative Frederick Douglass, Life of a Slav

Dreams in Song of Solomon, Narrative of Frederick Douglass, Incidents in the life-time of a Slave Girl, and Push In 1776 it was verbalize that our country was based upon cardinal simple truth, That all men are created equal that they are endowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights that among these are life, indecency, and the pursuit of happiness. Though stated with a poetic justice, this statement did not hold true for all U.S. citizens. Many citizens were held in captivity, versus freedom, unable to pursue those inalienable rights. After two one hundred years of inequality, Martin Luther King, Jr., would provide one of the most vocal positions regarding the lack of equal rights owed to African Americans. In his 1969 Lincoln Memorial speech, King would historically state, I still have a vision. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream, that one day this nation will rise up and populate out the true meaning of its creed - we hold these truths to be sel f-evident, that all men are created equal. Like most Americans, African Americans have developed some(prenominal) variations of the American Dream. Many African Americans find that their dream differs from the traditional American dream in that there is no immediate success. Sometimes it consists of equality via liberty and/or literacy, while at other a simple desire to know self through historical connection. Dreams of this nature have been a study underlying theme of African-American literature since the 1800s. In the mid-1800s Frederick Douglass began sharing his story of slavery with what was then considered the North. Douglass realized his dream early in life and worked to execute as much of the dream as possible. As he explains in The Classic Sla... ...e up the great African-American literary tradition describing the quest for the dream of equality, and in that, exercising their inalienable rights. WORKS CITED Brent, Linda. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. The Classic Slave Narratives. Ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr. New York Penguin Group, 1987. Douglass, Frederick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. The Classic Slave Narratives. Ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr. New York Penguin Group, 1987. Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. Introduction. The Classic Slave Narratives. Ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr. New York Penguin Group, 1987. ix-xviii. Graff, Harvey J. The Literacy Myth Literacy and Social social system in the Nineteenth-Century City. New York Academic Press, 1979. Morrison, Toni. Song of Solomon. New York The Penguin Group, 1977. Sapphire. Push. New York Vintage Contemporaries, 1996.

Radcliffe and Wordsworth: Nature, Travel, and Memory Essay -- Traveli

Radcliffe and Wordsworth Nature, Travel, and Memory In preparation for my presentation on the character of M. St. Aubert in Radcliffes The Mysteries of Udolpho, I examined various passages from the novels first a few(prenominal) chapters which described St. Auberts responses to nature in terms of the picturesque, the sublime, and sensibility. One passage which especially attracted my attention, but which ultimately fell outside the coverage of our groups presentation, is Radcliffes account of St. Auberts feelings about the teeny-weeny estate in Gascony (Radcliffe 6) where he and his family lived To this spot he had been attached from his infancy. He had often made excursions to it when he was a boy, and the impressions of delight given to his mind . . . had not been obliterated by succeeding circumstances. The green pastures along which he had so often bounded in the exultation of health, and youthful freedom - the woods, under whose fresh shade he had first indulged that pensive melancholy . . . the wild walks of the mountains, the river, on whose waves he had floated, and the distant plains, which seemed boundless as his early hopes - were never after remembered by St. Aubert but with enthusiasm and regret. (Radcliffe 6) This passage was interesting to me because many of the travel writings we have read so far tend to focus more on the travellers immediate responses to relatively new and unfamiliar environments which they are visiting for the first time, rather than on a return to a familiar place or the memories evoked by those familiar places. However, St. Auberts emotional responses to familiar places - as well as his responses to less familiar places he sees on his travels - form a substantive part of his characte... ...remembered them when we had been there before - in a similar manner to the way in which Wordsworth does this in Tintern Abbey. As well, though on the more new-fangled trips I have been more acutely aware of the ways in which my relat ionships with my family have changed over the years - perhaps a side effect of travel with three other people in a small space for a period of ten days - it is still easy for me to sympathize with Radcliffes generalization of the memory of those we love . . . all tender and harmonious as this landscape (47). Works Cited Radcliffe, Ann. The Mysteries of Udolpho. 1794. Ed. Jacqueline Howard. London Penguin, 2001. Wordsworth, William. Lines Written a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey, on Revisiting the Banks of the Wye During a Tour, 13 July 1798. 1798. Romanticism An Anthology. Ed. Duncan Wu. Oxford Blackwell, 1998. 265-269.

Cultural Aspects of Korean Boshintang :: Papers

Does Korean plan to serve Boshintang soup for the visitors to Seoul during the World Cup tournament?This is one question from an American to Korean English newspaper last month, condemning Koreans for eating hot dog as cruel abuse to animal. Some of the Western media treat Koreans as savages for eating dog meat and put it on the air as a most intriguing piece of news. As well, many international people who turn in something of Korea or visit to Korea always ask well-nigh this dog-eating. And then, how should we react to this issue? Should we scold them back for lacking of understanding others? Or should we really feel embarrassed about this old part of our culture and throw away like old shoes? Boshintang is apparently our traditional food habit, which can be irrational and non easy to understand for foreigners. But whenever Koreans were heard criticism or asked about it, most of them could not defend themselves or answer the question logically. We have to know that it is our resp onsibility to inform them the right view of thinking. I am here now to give some interesting informations about our eating habit to reckon at it in a new light. What we eat or not is patterned by culture. Some eating habits may seem disgusting to others who dont package the same culture. A sense of cultural superiority is wrong because e truly culture is a specialized adaptation of environment. Korea is very cold during the winter, so it was surd to raise cattle a long time ago. Besides, bullocks were the essential farming animals that pull plows and carts. As a result, generally eating beef in Korea was very uncommon to people. So Korean started to raise dogs which grew well even in the cold weather and without special food or care to obtain lean nutrition. Many westerners think that dogs have been bred for centuries to be mans best friends or even family, and not to be livestock. But Korean concept of dog is very different. on that point are distinct differences between human and animal in Korea. Many Koreans even dont like living with any animal under the same jacket of the house and get them their own home outside. As well, the family relationship has been very strong in Korea, so they dont treat dogs as pets in the western way. Thats wherefore Koreans do not have much affection for dogs, which is usually given to eat leftovers and manure traditionally.

Use of Light and Darkness in Joseph Conrads Heart of Darkness Essa

Use of Light and shabbiness in Joseph Conrads center of Darkness Joseph Conrads Heart of Darkness contrasts animated and darkness, to represent the civilised and furious sides of the world. Conrad uses light to represent the civilized side of humanity while contrasting the dark with the uncivilized and savage. Throughout the thematic stages of the novel, that is the Thames river London, the companys office in Belgium, the journey to the heart of darkness and the conclusion, light and dark is used to represent these sides of humanity, but on a deeper direct many assumptions of darkness and light are challenged, with the appearance of light and dark, and in turn good and evil contrasting with the reality. From the initial setting, the Thames river, London, on the cruising yawl the Nellie, light and darkness are used to symbolize the good and evil side of humanity. Marlows tale of the Congo is where light and darkness is used to represent the civilized and uncivilized. Marlow ta lks of the lights that are reflected in the water, creating the idea that the members of the Nellie are civilized. The lights of London are again used represent the civilized nature of the hunting lodge, with connotations of good coming from the bright lights of civilization. hitherto this is then contrasted with the juxtaposition of the light, with Marlow saying - And this also has been one of the dark places of the Earth. By saying this Marlow is portraying London as a urban center with once the same darkness of civilization, of which the civilized Romans brought light to. This establishment of light representing the civilized demonstrates the dominant assumptions of the white society, later in the novel it is demonstrated that civilized does no... ...story. However Conrad also challenges many assumptions of darkness being solely associated with evil, and light being solely associated with good, as throughout the novel the light of the white society is critiqued, representing the evil side of humanity. Works Cited and Consulted Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. Middlesex, England Penguin Publishers, 1983. Gillon, Adam. (1982). Joseph Conrad. Twaynes English Author Series Number 333. Kinley E. Roby, ed. Boston Twayne. Joseph Conrad. The Encarta 1998 Encyclopedia Online. Microsoft, 1998. Kunitz, Stanley J. Joseph Conrad. Twentieth Century Authors Vol. T. New York H.W. Wilson Company, 1942. 307-9 Stape, J.H.. The Cambridge Companion to Joseph Conrad. Cambridge Cambridge University Press. Taylor, Derek. Conrads Heart of Darkness. The Explicator. No.4 Summer 1998 195-8.

fully just? :: essays research papers

Fully Just?The death penalty debate is an extremely controversial issue affecting the conception forthwith. In todays society, people argue whether the death penalty is an acceptable form of justice. In America, the pros and cons of the death penalty are an ongoing debate. unnumberable questions arise whenever someone mentions the death penalty. Is Capital Punishment just? The death penalty is just. As a citizen of the United States, I am interested in this issue because I live under the statutes of the American justice system. Someone who disagrees with the death penalty claims that it is wrong to promote remove, yet he or she promotes murder by opposing an equal punishment for those who commit the crime. Not executing criminals who commit horrific crimes is preserving a life that has devalued all life. People feature been sentenced to death for various forms of wrongdoing all through extinct history. One can trace back execution all the way to the crucifixion of Jesus. Stonin g, drowning, burning at the stake, impaling, and beheading are other forms of punishment that people used hundreds of years ago. These previous methods are found cruel and unusual and evolve to what we refer to today as modern capital punishment. Capital Punishment today is the legal infliction of death as a penalty for violating criminal law and is mighty so. Since 1976, capital punishment is accomplished through various means lethal injection (primarily), electrocution, and gas chamber are the or so prominent (Death Penalty knowledge Center). These new methods are more efficient and less inhumane for the party receiving the sentence of death. Thirty-eight states across the country currently take part in capital punishment thirty-seven of which use lethal injection as the primary means. The law executes both men and woman for various crimes, but for the most part the severity of the punishment increases with the severity of the crime (Death Penalty Information Center). The crime most punished with the death penalty is murder, and rightfully so. Society is better(p) off without people who commit inhumane crimes. Opponents of the death penalty commonly portray the death penalty as a barbaric " inwardness for an eye" approach to criminal justice. Although most parts of the world do not take this philosophy literally, our culture still follows the spirit of this law. In America, two out of every three people support the death penalty, about sixty-six percent (Death Penalty Information Center).

fully just? :: essays research papers

Fully Just?The death penalty debate is an extremely controversial payoff affecting the world today. In todays society, people argue whether the death penalty is an acceptable form of justice. In America, the pros and cons of the death penalty are an ongoing debate. Countless questions arise whenever someone mentions the death penalty. Is Capital Punishment just? The death penalty is just. As a citizen of the United States, I am interested in this issue because I live under the statutes of the American justice system. Someone who disagrees with the death penalty claims that it is wrong to promote murder, yet he or she promotes murder by opposing an equal punishment for those who commit the crime. Not executing feloniouss who commit horrific crimes is preserving a life that has devalued each life. People have been sentenced to death for assorted forms of wrongdoing all throughout history. One can trace back execution all the way to the agony of Jesus. Stoning, drowning, burning at the s dumbfound, impaling, and beheading are other forms of punishment that people used hundreds of years ago. These previous methods are found cruel and unusual and originate to what we refer to today as modern capital punishment. Capital Punishment today is the legal infliction of death as a penalty for violating criminal law and is justly so. Since 1976, capital punishment is accomplished through various means lethal injection (primarily), electrocution, and gas chamber are the most heavy(p) (Death Penalty Information Center). These new methods are more efficient and less inhumane for the party receiving the sentence of death. Thirty-eight states across the country currently take part in capital punishment thirty-seven of which use lethal injection as the primary means. The law executes both men and woman for various crimes, but for the most part the severity of the punishment increases with the severity of the crime (Death Penalty Information Center). The crime most punishe d with the death penalty is murder, and really so. Society is better off without people who commit inhumane crimes. Opponents of the death penalty commonly portray the death penalty as a ferine "eye for an eye" approach to criminal justice. Although most parts of the world do not take this philosophy literally, our culture still follows the spirit of this law. In America, two out of every three people support the death penalty, about sixty-six percent (Death Penalty Information Center).

The Mind-Body Issue in Science

Neuroscience is the study of the brain and psychological science iswell, the answer to that question is not exactly clear. A direct commentary of the word psychology boils down to the study of the nous or the knowledge of the psyche, save psychology does not have a definition of the psyche and, in general, they do not conceptualise in it. Psyche comes from the Greek word meaning soul, so the psyche is actually the study of the soul, and yet psychology today has more or less become a study of the straits, and ironic situation since neither psychologists nor neuroscientists believe in the existence of the mind.The in the main held original view of the mind is that the mind arises from the activity of the brain. Thus, a major philosophical concern of neuroscience is, Does the mind exist separate and independent of the brain? The generally genuine answer to this question is, No. The mind is an epiphenomenon that arises from brain activity. In the past, efforts were made to resolv e this problem with philosophical arguments such as Fredric Weizmanns ideas somewhat genetics and embryology (Forsdyke, 1999) and Michael M. Sokal ideas about phrenology.Today, we can conclude that the mind/body problem of science has been successfully resolved despite the obvious fact that the resolution has yet to be recognized or acknowledged We can now take pride that the resolution to this dilemma did not result in confirming the pervasive 19th-century fear humanness might ultimately be viewed as mere machines lacking souls. (Jacyna, 1994)Despite the generally accepted view that the mind is merely an epiphenomenon that arises from brain activity, more or less superimposed over brain activity, there is actually no evidence to support the idea. To date, all of the available data, without exception, suggests that the mind and the brain are dickens separate but interacting things. Whatever evidence that does not suggest this is neutral. The evidence is sufficiently strong to ha ve swayed diehard monists (who believe that the mind is the brain) into becoming dualists (who believe that the mind and the brain are separate).Upon a review of the available data at the end of his feel, the late neurosurgeon Wilder Penfield, MD (1891 1976), a causation monist, concluded the evidence, it comes as a surprise now to discover, during this final examination of the evidence, that the dualist hypothesis seems the more reasonable of the two possible explanations. (Penfield, 1975) Although the available data whitethorn support Penfields conclusion, there are still some interesting, intriguing and difficult questions to answer such as, What is the realm of consciousness and the mind, How does consciousness and the mind and the realm of mind relate to the brain and the physical body, and Does a mind exist independent of the brain and the physical body? We can briefly address each of these questions separately.The commutation problem with the dualist point of view is that the mind exists as an abstraction unless it arises from brain activity. If the mind exists separate and independent of the brain, the answer to our first question is that the mind exists as an abstract field as proposed around the 1920s by developmental biologist Paul Weiss. (Weiss, 1926) Then, in the mid and late 1930s, Dr. Harold Saxton Burr and his associates discovered estimable such a field. (Burr and Lane, 1935 Burr and Northrop, 1939)Dr. Burr discovered that all living things are molded and controlled by invisible and intangible electro-dynamic fields, that he called L-fields for the fields of life. John White and Stanley Krippner call the L-field the nosepiece or intermediate link surrounded by the mental and the physicalthey offer evidence that the mind and body are quite an separate. (White and Krippner, 1977)If Burrs findings are correct, it seems apparent that consciousness and the mind are electrodynamic fields that interact with the physical body. Burr was able to make a definitive fraternity between the L-field and wound healing and between the L-field and the mental functions and mental states of individuals.Burr and his colleagues found that they could make impersonal, objective measurements of the mental and emotional states of psychiatric patients and that their electrical measurements generally agreed closely with psychiatric diagnoses. Consciousness and the mind somehow relate to the brain and the physical body through an electrical connection or bridge of sorts, forces associated with and coupled to cells. (Jerndal, 1982)Finally, although the preferred view of the mind-body/mind-brain import in neuroscience and psychology is the monistic view which states that the mind is merely an epiphenomenon that arises from brain activity, it is apparent that the mind transcends physical functions of the body, but there are concerns such as can more detailed studies be provided to determine if the mind can be associated with the L-field? Burr, Ravitz and their colleagues provided evidence that established a relationship between nerve and other tissue and that made useful neurological and psychiatric measurements that were associated with mental functions.Therefore, they succeeded in establishing a firm connection between an abstract but very real field and the tangible nervous system. This data provides concrete evidence for the existence of an independent mind that transcends the functions of the physical body. Thus, it appears that the mind-brain and mind-body issue can be laid to rest. Now, the problem is, How to get the word out. Perhaps that leaves us right back where we started, at least for now. ReferencesBecker, Robert O. and Gary Selden (1985). THE BODY ELECTRIC. Electromagnetism and The launching of Life. New York, NY Quill, William Morrow.Burr, H. S. (1952). Electrometrics of Atypical Growth. Yale J. Biol. Med., 25, 67-75.Burr, H. S. (1972). The Fields of Life Our Links with the Universe. New York, NY Ballanti ne Books.Burr, H. S., and Lane, C. T. (1935). Electrical Characteristics of brisk Systems. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 8, 31-35.Burr, H. S., and Northrop, F. S. C. (1939). Evidence for the Existence of An Electrodynamic Field in the Living Organisms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, U.S.A., 25, 284-288.Eccles, Sir John C. (1951). Hypotheses Relating To The Brain-Mind Problem. Nature, 168(4263), 53-57.Forsdyke, D. R. (1999). Two levels of information in DNA Relationship of Romanes intrinsic variability of the reproductive system, and Batesons residue to the species-dependent component of the rest home composition, (C + G) %. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 201, 47-61Jacyna, L. S. (1994). Philosophic whigs Medicine, science and citizenship in Edinburgh 1789-1848. London Routledge.Jerndal, Jens (1982). The Field Resonance Approaching Medicine. Text of a Paper presented at the 3rd humans Congress of Alternative Medicine, Colombo, Sri Lanka 22nd October, 1982. Penfield, Wilder (1975). The Mystery of the Mind A Critical Study of Consciousness and the Human Brain. Princeton, NJ Princeton University Press.Weiss, P. A. (1926) Morphodynamik Ein Einblick in die Gesetzte der organischen Gestaltung an get to von experimentellen Ergebnissen, in Abhandlungen zur theoretischen Biologie, (J. Schaxel, ed.), Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin.White, John, and Krippner, Stanley (1977). Future Science. Life Energies and the Physics of Paranormal Phenomena. Garden City, NY Anchor Books.

Poor Management Outline Essay

The rationale behind my choice of this as my coping stone project topic can be quite simply summed up by a necessity to stem the tide of departures by top notch performers within our division, the requirement that change in a positive way be undertaken to correct current managerial deficiencies, and the enlightenment of all employees when dealing with one another in a professional manner which can build comradeliness or esprit de corps. My belief is that this project will fit in hale within my program as it will help solidify many of the managerial aspects I prolong learned through my studies.In regards to my professional interests it is paramount that my division corrects many of its deficiencies in regards to policy and planning. It is also important for me on a professional and personal level to ascertain how things have gone badly and how they could be pr even upted or made better in this process. Page 2 The belles-lettres included in my search that deals with my capstone pr oject comes from many Internet sites dealing with the varying topics of prudence written about with vast sums at such sites as management-issues. om, quintcareers. com, humanresources. about. com, and allbusiness. com. The let on word searches I performed for my online investigate via Google. com included effects of poor management and fiting with bad managers among other less winnerful combinations that were inputted. Books Ive used and that were found highly useful during my research include Peter Druckers Management Tasks, Responsibilities, and Practices Leading Geeks by Paul Glen and David H.Maister and Motivating the Whats in It for Me? Workforce by Cam Marston. Luckily, there is no shortage of information available on the topic of management and for that matter proper managerial techniques or even methods used by managers who perform poorly. In addition to the Internet sites and books that I have mentioned I will be incorporating a revised version of the body of work cl imate survey which our office recently completed.These are the foundation of my research and I will merge my personal interviews and research with those from the Internet and literary flora in book format. Page 3 The research question that I have developed for this proposal is Can changes be made within the management of my piece of work that will positively affect the quality of work produced by our business social unit, an increase in the productivity of our personnel, enhancement of improved speculate satisfaction, and a turn around for our current problem with computer memory of key employees?A thesis statement, although not asked for, would be something along the lines of Our business unit will have a higher quality of work produced by a more energetic and proactive workforce who be in possession of a far better job satisfaction level while retaining the best personnel through the creation of a more professional and people centric management. A specific documental is to d etermine the varying effects that subpar managers and an overall poor managerial milieu have upon my business unit.The specific department I will research intensively is the business unit in which I work while also including a broader arena as necessary to bring together all entropy that I have discovered and researched. The approach taken is one of descriptive studies and will in the end provide some coursed of action to take for our unit to change its current underperformance. A key area of study will be managerial inadequacy and personnel issues.Page 4 The form of my research project will be descriptive in nature as my research will be primarily used to describe what is going on or what exists. Since I will be describing my work environment and using data collected from personal interviews as fountainhead as a workplace climate survey I believe this is the appropriate style. The quality of data is dependent on open and sincere answers from my colleagues, managers, and subordina tes.I have had great success with requests for participation however this does not necessarily mean that the answers given are completely honest. My Internet research along with the information attained through the exploration of the books I have chosen will help develop some proposed corrections and alternatives to the present methods of management, productivity, and personnel decision processes. Combining the hands-on work that I have accomplished along with he data collected via the Internet and literature acquired should allow the formulation of some concrete steps to take when mournful toward a better professional workplace while taking into account the personal aspects which have thus far been almost singularly denied. The current environment in which my colleagues and I work is one that has several issues that need to be reviewed and examined thoroughly. Page 5 In the undertaking of this capstone project I apply more so than expect to have a positive effect on my profession al environment.My desire is to invigorate the mind rophy of some of our more set in their ways managers while attempting to engage colleagues and subordinates in a way that is positive and helps development of a better working atmosphere. Some alternatives I promise could be as extreme as resentment by management and trepidation by colleagues who reside professionally in fear of persecution as well as the possibility of a real change in operations and procedures or this capstone project may be an exercise in futility as time goes on and changes are not made to the system.Personally I feel that this capstone project is an opportunity for me to show my organizational skills that I possess and have honed during my university studies. Professionally my greatest hope is for some positive changes to be made throughout the organization in which I work. The organizational benefits which could be derived if I do well in my presentation of this project could be higher levels of production by employees and management, a greater commitment to employee satisfaction, improved quality of work, and retention of superior performers.Page 6 I believe a successful project for me would involve validation from my coworkers that I have hit on the key talking points that need to be addressed at our workplace. If management would take my proposals into account when determining a course of action to go forth with in the future when dealing with personnel and work related issues that would provide more satisfaction but since this may not occur no matter how well my points are made I view this alternative at some level as frosting on the cake.At this point in my research and the stage of development which I am at in my project I can state that my colleagues are very interested and to the full supportive. The criteria I will use in evaluating my current status would be the critiques and recommendations of my managers, coworkers, and subordinates. I can be judged by many different aspect s on this capstone project but I truly feel as though the one that is the single greatest measure will be the feedback provided by those who work with me on a daily basis within the business unit.

Ikea Supply chain

How old are the students studying MU 123 ? Knowing that the number of students in MU 123 is 80 a questionair is been made to know the ages of those students as they are consider small segment from the AOU and we can from that know from this study know the avarage age of AOU students. 28 students were in the age of 18 21 18 student were in the age of 22 28 11 students were in the age of 25 28 9 students were in the age of 28 31 7 student s were in the age of 32 35 6 students were in the age of 35 40 1 student on were age above 40Part (b) Collect relevant data needed to answer your question (stage C). This will involve choosing samples or designing questionnaires and key the data into a spreadsheet. Most of the data you will need is secondary data that already exist in the internet or published literature and can be adapted for your investigation. You may refer to your text book, (Book A, pages 183 & 184) and learn more how to deal with data. When presenting your data it is impo rtant to provide the write to the data source you are adapting. (30 marks).As it shows in the table below How old are the Students studying MU 123 Age Range 18-21 22 25 26-29 30-33 34-37 38-40 40 + total 28 18 11 9 7 6 Percentage% 22. 50% 13. 75% 11 . 25% 8. 75% 7. 50% whenever the age plus the number of students decreases. 35% are the highest percentage with 28 students in their fresh years. 1. 25% are the lowest percentage with only 1 student enrolled above the age 40. 27. 5% are the number of students att caning between 30 to 40 Part (c) Analyse the data that have been collected (stage A).This stage involves steps in summarising and measuring the collected data. The associated measures that we expect you use in your TMA are the believe, the mode, the median, range, interquartile range and standard deviation. You can use Microsoft Excel in presenting your data in bar charts or graphs as part of summarising your data. (more details on how to draw statistical pictures are expl ained In book D, Unit 1 1) (30 marks) calculating the mean 1+6+7+9+11+18+28= = 1 1. 4 Calculating the meadian Arrange the numbers by order 1 6 7 9 11Range = 28-1 = 27 QI-6 18 IQR= 18-6=12 Standard Deviation Meadian Deviations (d) d (power of 2) 1-114 . = -10. 4 108. 6 = -5. 4 29. 16 -4. 4 19. 36 = -2. 4 5. 76 11-11. 4 . 4 0. 16 18-11. 4 = 6. 6 43. 56 28-11. 4 = 16. 6 275. 56 The mean of d(to power of 2) 108. 6 + 29. 16 + 19. 36 + 5. 76 + 0. 16 + 43. 56 + 275. 56 = 462. 8/7 66. 11 = 8. 13 is the standard deviasion = 66. 11 Square root of At the end we realize from all the above charts how the number of students will decrease as the age increases.

Body Comodification in Maria Full of Grace

Writer and director Joshua Marstons film Maria Full of grace of God chronicles the titular characters foray into the drug condescension. The young girl, in desperate circumstances, wagers that the money promised to her by her drug running employers against the plethora of possible infelicitous outcomes, and when she accepts the job, her body effectively becomes commodified. Maria, in the film, is reduced by her employers from a daughter, sister and expectant mother to little more than a human container, a surreptitious vessel to facilitate the import of cocaine into the United States from Columbia. Maria Full of Grace exposes the methods that drug cartels use to ensure that their shipments arrive to their destinations. The mules argon made to bring down pellets of cocaine, and, upon arriving in the United States, excrete them to be sold. This method of delivery is fraught with danger. There is, of course, the possibility that the mules will be discovered by authorities on either side of the border, and smuggling such large quantities of narcotics carries hefty penalties that could see them locked up for life.Another, even more serious threat is that the pellets could, at any time, intermission inside of the mules body, which is tantamount to a death sentence. With these dangers being considered, it can be difficult to imagine how someone could allow themselves to be apply in such a way, but, luckily, the film includes the necessary motivations. Maria is prompted to become a drug mule when she loses her job de-thorning roses. She had been keeping her struggling family afloat with this occupation, and was in desperate need of employment, especially considering she was pregnant.While all drug mules have various reasons for choosing to use their bodies to transport drugs, most of those reasons are to escape desperate circumstances. The mules are habituated the opportunity to feed their starving families, to find some solace from their impoverished lives. T he mules hold no illusions about becoming rich, they are simply compelled by their miss of options to accept any job that pay backs well, even if it means risking anything.Drug mules are compelled by desperation into the horrific world of drug smuggling, but the cartels are motivated lonesome(prenominal) by lust for greed and profit. This represents yet another risk that the mules must face. In Maria full of Grace when Lucy falls ill, the cartel members that contact her pay no mind to the fact that she is dying before their eyes. To the drug runners, Lucy has fulfilled her purpose by transporting the cocaine, and they thus have no reason to protect her life. When Lucy dies, she is disemboweled in the bathtub of a hotel room for the drugs she was carrying. nd her body is simply and unceremoniously dumped, this turn of events serves to showcase the fact that the cartels feel no empathy towards the people that they rely upon, for, to them, they are not people, but have been reduced to mere objects. Maria Full of Grace helps to showcase how globalization is allowing human beings to be reduced to commodities. The international trade in drugs makes many unscrupulous people a lot of money, and so, those people are willing to go to any lengths to ensure that the drug trade amidst nations continues.When border patrol agents, drug sniffing dogs and the coast guard shut down avenues of trade, the cartels turned to the idea of using people as the containers of their wares. This commodification of the human body dehumanizes the mules to such an extent that when they die serving their employers, their thanks is to be cut beyond recognition for their cargo and disposed of, as if they were trash to be thrown out. Joshua Marstons film perfectly reveals the negative ways in which globalization has led to the commodification of the human body

Causes and Effects of Homework Essay

Homework is a thing that has been around for many years. tour some assignments argon big, and some ar small, they both defend one thing in common they add a large amount of stress to the students life.Many things bring on homework upcoming tests, grades, main ideas that must be learned. These are fair reasons to assign assignments, because they teach you new abilities and permit you use certain skills. With good reasons, there are unfair reasons as well. Teachers who have nothing better to do, students misbehaving, and students not reaching the desired stopping point in the teachers schedule. These causes put an abnormal amount of stress on the students.Read more(prenominal)How to write a good cause and effect essay.First, lets focus on the good reasons. Homework can be a valuable tool in the teachers hands, but only if they know how to wield that tool properly. Giving students 2 hours of boring homework will not encourage the student to learn. They will just skim through, we ft in the answers. On the other hand, if a teacher gives a one hour assignment that interesting and fun, then the student will be more enthusiastic about it, therefore absorbing the assignment instead of skimming over it.Homework allows the teacher additional time to teach the student. If certain skills are needed later on in life (or at least on the SAT exam), the homework would allow more time for the student to retrieve the skill. If there is an upcoming test (finals, SAT, etc.), assigning homework is a great way for the teacher make sure the student studies.With all of these benefits, there have to be some drawbacks. Teachers who assign a lot of homework, especially when it is due the next day, are feared. Students are stressed and cant go into that teachers room without feeling dread at how long tonights assignment is going to take. One hour, two, or more? They wait in fear for the announcement of the homework assignment. After a grueling night of studying and writing, the stu dents barely have enough time to sleep. They sleep in through their alarm, missing breakfast and their bus. Their parents have to drive their kids to school, which makes their parents mad at them, adding even more stress to thestudents life. The student gets to school late, interrupting the class and receiving another tardy, and/or a detention. This puts them into a bad mood, and they cant think about school because they are thinking about the detention. This leads to bad grades, more of their parents nagging, and more stress on that individuals life.See how one teachers long assignment can affect a students day. Terrible, isnt it? While all of this stuff might not happen in a single day, some of it happens every day to a select few individuals. in all of this can be avoided if plenty of time is given for each homework assignment, and if they are never due on Mondays. If the teacher assigns the due date on Tuesday and reminds the class of it on Monday, the I forgot it at home excus e will no longer be valid.Overall, homework is a necessary evil it teaches and gives you a headache at the same time. Some teachers should lighten up on the workload, especially math teachers. To sum everything up, a good analogy for homework is equal taking prescription medication. A little is good for you, while an overdose can be a serious health risk.

Quality of Education

10 A HISTORY OF THE AECTS DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL engineering science Alan Januszewski h e State University of New York at Potsdam Kay A. Persichitte University of Wyoming base The purpose of this chapter is to provide a historical context for the current dei nition of educational engineering science. We twainow do this in several stages. First, we testament review the primary purposes and considerations for dei ning educational engineering science. h en, we will review each of the four previous dei nitions, paying particular proposition attention to the primary constructs intricate in each dei nition.We will assay the context and rationales for ends make regarding each of theast southeast primary surmisals. We will in any case preast southeastnt some of the historical critiques of the dei nitions which provided the impetus for changing the dei nitions. h e criteria and purposes for producing a dei nition were discussed at the succession of the writing of the i r st dei nition in 1963. A satisfactory dei nition of focusingal engineering will let us i nd common ground, will propose tomorrows horizons, and will allow for a variety of patterns that specii c individuals may companion in specii c institutions . . look for must be designed in terms of clear understanding of argumental engine room. Superintendents of schools be requesting criteria for new personnel ER5861X_C010. indd 259 ER5861X_C010. indd 259 8/16/07 62422 PM 8/16/07 62422 PM260 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE needed in assorted phases of instructional improvement. Teacher-education institutions need assistance in planning courses for pre-service and in-service instruction that will provide the skills and understanding which will be required in tomorrows classrooms . . Let us consider the criteria for delectationful dei nitions. h ey should (a) clarify the comment of the i days in ordinary language (b) summarize existing knowledge (c) mediate applications of knowledge to ne w situations and (d) expire to fruitful lines of experimental inquiry. . . . h is fi days of make aims to provide a working dei nition for the i eld of instructional engine room which will serve as a cloth for future educations and lead to an improvement in instruction. (Ely, 1963, pp. 8) h ose involved in the writing of the 1963 dei nition obviously believed that thither were a lot of things to consider when dei ning educational technology. Or put dif erently, the macrocosm of such a dei nition would have far reaching consequences, some snips with implications that the authors might non intend. Acknowledging this opened the door to reprehensions of the dei nitions and the purposes cited for redei ning educational technology. h e authors of subsequent dei nitions all seemed to adhere, at least in part, to the purposes and criteria identii ed in the 1963 dei nition.The 1963 Definition h e leadinghip of the Association for educational communication guess and engineering science (AECT) recognise the 1963 dei nition of audiovisual aid communications as the i rst formal dei nition of educational technology (AECT, 1977). h is dei nition, the i rst in a series of four oi cially sancti 1d dei nitions, was genuine by the flush on Dei nition and Terminology of the Department of Audiovisual Instruction (DAVI) of the National Education Association (NEA) and supported by the Technological Development Project (TDP).In 1963 audiovisual communications was the label that was used to describe the i eld as it was evolving from the audiovisual education impressment to educational technology Audiovisual communications is that severalise of educational conjecture and practice primarily concerned with the design and use of messages which correspond the encyclopedism military operation. It undertakes (a) the study of the unique and relative strengths and weaknesses of two pictorial and synopsis messages which may be employed in the accomplishment swear o ut for any purpose and (b) the structuring and dodgingatizing of messages by men and instruments in an educational environment. ese undertakings ER5861X_C010. indd 260 ER5861X_C010. indd 260 8/16/07 62423 PM 8/16/07 62423 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECTS DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 261 include the planning, production, selection, management, and utilization of both comp cardinalnts and entire instructional administrations. Its practical goal is the ei cient utilization of every method and medium of communication which can contri only whene to the development of the prentices full potential. (Ely, 1963, pp. 1819) A footnote that was include as part of this dei nition read the audiovisual communications label is used at this time as an expedient.An other(a) designation may evolve, and if it does, it should then be substituted (p. 18). Conceptual Shit s Signaled in Dei nitions h ere are three major conceptual gob s that contributed to the formulation of the dei nitions of edu cational technology as a opening (1) the use of a process concept preferably than a product concept (2) the use of the terms messages and media instrumentation quite a than materials and machines and (3) the introduction of certain elements of learning theory and communication theory (Ely, 1963, p. 19).Understanding these three ideas and their impact on each other is essential to understanding the idea of educational technology in 1963. A technological conception of the audiovisual i eld called for an emphasis on process, making the traditional product concept of the i eld of educational technology untenable. h e missionary post believed, h e traditional product concept in the audiovisual i eld views the things of the i eld by come uponing machines, use of particular senses, and feature articles of materials by degrees of abstractness and/or concreteness (Ely, 1963, p. 19).Members of the commitment preferred a process concept of the i eld which included the planning, producti on, selection, management, and utilization of both components and entire instructional systems (p. 19). h is process conception besides emphasized the relationship mingled with events as dynamic and continuous (p. 19). h e Commission argued that materials and machines were things or products and opted not to use those terms in the dei nition. Instead, the Commission used the terms messages and instruments. h e Commission set ahead argued that materials and machines were interdependent elements. A motion picture and projector are inseparable as are all other materials requiring machines for their use (Ely, 1963, p. 19). whizz was of little practical use without the other. h e Commission used the concept of media instrumentation to explain instruments. h e Commission said, Media-instrumentation indicates the ER5861X_C010. indd 261 ER5861X_C010. indd 261 8/16/07 62423 PM 8/16/07 62423 PM262 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE transmission systems, the materials and devices available to car ry selected messages (Ely, 1963, p. 20). e concept of media instrumentation also included the people who utilized the instruments in the educational environment as well as the transmission systems. h e idea that both people and instruments comprised media instrumentation was based in the liberaler concept of the man-machine system (Finn, 1957). In give-and-takes of the relationship and integration of learning theory and communications theory to instructional technology, the Commission stated, Certain elements of learning theory and communications theory of er potential contributions to the i eld of educational technology e. . , source, message, channel, receiver, ef ects, stimulus, organism, response (Ely, 1963, p. 20). h e Commission incorporated learning theory and communications theory by identifying and combining the devil systems basic to the process view of the i eld the learning-communicant system and the educational-communicant system. h ese two systems use concepts from both learning and communications theories that delineated and specii ed the roles of the individuals involved in the use of these systems. e learnercommunicant system refers to the student population and the educationalcommunicant system refers to the nonrecreational persons in the school (p. 23). h ese two systems could be of any size, ranging from a mavin classroom to large school systems (Ely, 1963). Merging the two communicant systems into a single model of the educational process provided the i eld of audiovisual communications with a theoretical framework (Ely, 1963) and a model that allowed educational technology to be viewed as a theoretical construct (AECT, 1977). e fundamental doctrine advanced by the writers of the i rst dei nition was that it was a branch of educational theory and practice. h e countersign theory was particularly important in this dei nition because it had a special place in the history of the audiovisual i eld, because of the status that it conferr ed on the i eld, and because of the expectation for further investigate to inl uence the maturation of that theory. Finns Characteristics of a Profession e 1963 dei nition was heavily inl uenced by James Finns (1953) six characteristics of a profession (a) An clever technique, (b) an application of that technique to the practical af airs of man, (c) a period of long training necessary before unveiling into the profession, (d) an association of the members of the profession into a closely knit group with a high quality of communication ER5861X_C010. indd 262 ER5861X_C010. indd 262 8/16/07 62424 PM 8/16/07 62424 PM10.A HISTORY OF THE AECTS DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 263 amongst members, (e) a series of standards and a command of ethics which is enforced, and (f) an organized body of intellectual theory constantly expanded by research. (p. 7) Of these six characteristics of a profession, Finn (1953) argued that the most fundamental and most important characteristic o f a profession is that the skills involved are founded upon a body of intellectual theory and research (p. 8). Having established the immensity of theory and research for a profession, Finn further explained his position by saying that . . this overbearing theory is constantly being expanded by research and thinking within the profession (p. 8). Finn was arguing that a profession conducts its own research and theory development to complement the research and theory development that it adapts/adopts from other academic areas. If educational technology was to be a true profession, it would have to conduct its own research and develop and its own theory rather than borrowing from to a greater extent established disciplines like psychology.Finn (1953) evaluated the audiovisual i eld against each of the six characteristics and determined that the audiovisual i eld did not meet the most fundamental characteristic an organized body of intellectual theory and research. When the audiovisua l i eld is measured against this characteristic . . . the conclusion must be reached that professional status has not been attained (Finn, 1953, p. 13). h is joust was largely accepted by, and had a profound ef ect on, the leadership of the audiovisual i eld in the late 1950s and early 1960s.Finn (1953) laid a foundation that the audiovisual i eld was troubled by a deficiency of theoretical advocate (p. 14). He attributed this to a lack of content and the absence of intellectual meat (p. 14) in the contemporary meetings and professional journals of the i eld. In his argument promoting the development of a theoretical base for the audiovisual i eld, Finn warned, Without a theory which bring forths hypotheses for research, there can be no expanding knowledge and technique.And without a constant hear to assess practice so that the theoretical implications may be teased out, there can be no assurance that we will ever have a theory or that our practice will agree sense. (p. 14) F inn dedicated his career to rectifying this dei ciency in the i eld, and the resulting impact of his work on the 1963 dei nition is evident. Advancing an argument that audiovisual communications was a theory was an attempt to come up to the lack of content cited by Finn (1953). e Commission identii ed the planning, production, selection, management, and utilization of both components and entire instructional systems (Ely, ER5861X_C010. indd 263 ER5861X_C010. indd 263 8/16/07 62424 PM 8/16/07 62424 PM264 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE 1963, p. 19) as tasks performed by practitioners in the i eld directly related to Finns (1953) discussion of the intellectual technique of the audiovisual i eldFinns i rst criterion for a profession. e i rst oi cial dei nition of educational technology can be viewed as an attempt to bring to come inher remnants of theory, technique, other academic research bases, and history contained in the audiovisual literature, into a logical statement closing the di sturbance on the poerty of thought (Finn, 1953, p. 13) that characterized the audiovisual education movement. h e evolution of audiovisual communications (and later, educational technology) as a theory began to furnish intellectual meat to audiovisual practice.By merging the audiovisual communications concept with the process predilection of the i eld into a new intellectual technique grounded in theory, the Commission strengthened the professional practice and of ered a direction for further growth as a profession. Emergence of a Process facial expression Included among the many factors contributing to the development of the process view of educational technology were the two beliefs held by the most inl uential and prominent individuals involved with the audiovisual i eld (1) that technology was primarily a process (Finn, 1960b) and (2) that communication was a process (Berlo, 1960 Gerbner, 1956). e conceptual view of educational technology as a way of thinking and a process was established by the 1963 dei nition. h e intention of the Commission that produced the i rst oi cial dei nition of the i eld was to dei ne the broader i eld of instructional technology which incorporates certain aspects of the established audiovisual i eld (Ely, 1963, p. 3). Not unexpectedly, the 1963 dei nition drew some critique as it was applied to the emerging i eld of the 1960s and 1970s.Prominent individuals involved with audiovisual education, such as James Finn (1957 1960a) and Charles Hoban (1962), had previously used the term technology when referring to the activities of the audiovisual i eld. Donald Ely (1973 1982) ascertained that the use of the word control in the 1963 dei nition was problematic for many individuals involved with educational technology. Ely (1982) explained, h e rigid deportmental emphasis at the time seemed to call for the word control (p. 3).He storied that the word facilitate was substituted by many professionals to make the dei nition more(p renominal) than palatable (Ely, 1973, p. 52). Perhaps equally important was the go for by members of the i eld to move away from a behaviorally based psychology to a more humanistic psychology (Finn, 1967). ER5861X_C010. indd 264 ER5861X_C010. indd 264 8/16/07 62424 PM 8/16/07 62424 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECTS DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 265 Criticisms of the 1963 Dei nition As noted in the introduction, no one dei nition can be the dei nition, and there were criticisms of the 1963 dei nition.James Knowlton (1964), a faculty member at Indiana University, was a consultant for the 1963 Commission on Dei nition and Terminology. In an essay that reviewed the 1963 dei nition, Knowlton stated that the dei nition itself was couched in semiotical terms (p. 4) but that the conceptual structure used in the rationale for the 1963 dei nition was couched in learning theory terms and this disjunction produced some surprising anomalies (p. 4). Knowltons argument was based on a need for conceptual and semantic consistency in the dei nition.Knowlton argued that weakness to pair the language of the dei nition with the language of the conceptual structure in the rationale resulted in a world(a) lack of clarity about this new concept. h is lack of clarity in turn caused confusion in the direction of research and practice in the i eld. Less than a decade later, Robert Heinich (1970) adage a need to redei ne the i eld of educational technology for two reasons. First, he was critical of the communications based language used in the 1963 dei nition. Heinich argued that this language was too complicated for school personnel to interpret and apply.Second, Heinich argued that the power to make many of the decisions regarding the use of technology in schools should be transferred from the teacher to the syllabus planners. Heinichs argument for changing the dei nition was based on both linguistic concerns and evolutionary varietys in the government agencys of practitioner s in the i eld. Heinich promoted an progress to schooling where specialists would decide when and where schools would use technology. h is position was dif erent from that which was discussed in the rationale for the 1963 dei nition.In the rationale for the 1963 dei nition, teachers were viewed as partners of educational technologists rather than as their subordinates (Januszewski, 2001). Forces Impelling a New Dei nition Other contemporary issues emerged which began to inl uence the i eld. h e report of the Presidential Commission on instructional Technology (1970) stated that instructional technology could be dei ned in two ship canal In its more familiar sense it means the media born of the communications revolution which can be used for instructional purposes alongside the teacher, textbook and blackboard.In general, the Commissions report follows this usage . . . the commission has had to look at the pieces that ER5861X_C010. indd 265 ER5861X_C010. indd 265 8/16/07 62425 PM 8 /16/07 62425 PM266 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE make up instructional technology television, i lms, overhead projectors, computers and the other items of hardware and sot ware. (p. 19) h e second and little familiar dei nition . . . (Instructional technology) . . . s a systematic way of designing, carrying out, and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specii c objectives, based on research in human learning and communication and employing a combination of human and nonhuman resources to bring about more ef ective instruction. (Commission on Instructional Technology, 1970, p. 19) Educational technology professionals responded to this report in a special section of Audiovisual communications Review (1970). h e professional reviews of the government report were mixed at best. Ely (Ely et al. 1970) of Syracuse University thought that the Commissions overall ef ort was commendable given its lot y charge. Earl Funderburk (Ely et al. , 1970) of the NEA called the recommendations a balanced program. But David Engler (Ely et al. , 1970) of the McGraw-Hill Book Company disapproved of the Commissions ef ort to relegate the process-based dei nition of instructional technology to some future role. Leslie Briggs (Ely et al. , 1970) of Florida State University accused the Presidential Commission of providing a two-headed image of instructional technology by stressing both a hardware and a process orientation of the concept. e contributors to this special section of Audiovisual Communications Review (1970) were generally dissatisi ed with the two-headed orientation primarily because of the confusion it might cause among the potential client groups of educational technology. h ey viewed the hardware orientation favored by the Presidential Commission as a setback for the profession. It meant the unacceptable return to the audiovisual aids and technology as machine conceptions of educational technology. h is orientation also implied the de-emphasizi ng of research and theory.Given these professional discussions and developments, professionals in the i eld believed that a new dei nition of educational technology was necessary. The 1972 Definition By 1972, through evolution and mutual agreement, the DAVI had become the AECT. Along with the organizational change came a change to the dei nition. ER5861X_C010. indd 266 ER5861X_C010. indd 266 8/16/07 62425 PM 8/16/07 62425 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECTS DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 267 h e newly formed AECT dei ned the term educational technology rather than the term audiovisual communications asEducational technology is a i eld involved in the facilitation of human learning through the systematic identii cation, development, organization and utilization of a full ramble on of learning resources and through the management of these processes. (Ely, 1972, p. 36) As a member of the group that wrote several of the early drat s of the 1972 dei nition, Kenneth Silber (1972) was su ccessful in including changes in many of the roles and functions of the practitioners of the i eld as part of that dei nition.Silber introduced the term learning system which combined ideas of the open classroom movement with some of the concepts of educational technology. Like Heinichs (1970) perspective, Silbers (1972) learning system (p. 19) suggested changes in the roles of the teacher and the educational technologist. Unlike Heinich, Silber supported the idea that learners should make many decisions regarding the use of educational technology themselves. Educational technologists would produce a variety of programs and designs that learners would use or adapt to meet their own long-range learning destination (p. 1). Silbers position was that the teacher should be more a facilitator of learning and less a teller of information. A Dei nition Based on h ree Concepts h ere are three concepts central to the 1972 dei nition characterizing educational technology as a i eld a broad ra nge of learning resources, individualized and personalized learning, and the use of the systems approach. It is these three concepts, when synthesized into a total approach to facilitate learning, that create the uniqueness of, and thus the rationale for, the i eld (Ely, 1972, p. 7). Examining these three concepts along with the idea of educational technology as a i eld is crucial to understanding the AECTs (1972) dei nition of educational technology. It is particularly important to recognize that dif erent interpretations of these three concepts would result in dif ering conceptions of the i eld through the future(a) three decades. h e dif erent interpretations and relative emphases of these concepts were due in large part to dif erences in educational philosophy and educational goals.Dif ering interpretations of these concepts would also have the more visible ef ect of substantially dif erent products and processes developed in the i eld. h e writers of the 1972 dei nition seemed to be aware that the major concepts could be interpret dif erently, and they seemed to be inte sculptural relief ER5861X_C010. indd 267 ER5861X_C010. indd 267 8/16/07 62426 PM 8/16/07 62426 PM268 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE in including individuals with dif erent philosophic and academic backgrounds in the i eld. e writers of the 1963 dei nition and its financial backing rationale seemed less concerned with accommodating divergent educational philosophies. Perhaps this was due to the fact that the 1963 dei nition was the i rst formal attempt to dei ne educational technology. Such an under taking was formidable enough. Perhaps it was because the writers of the 1972 dei nition paid more attention to the discussions of educational philosophy in the literature from the rest of the i eld of education.Perhaps it was because the 1963 dei nition viewed educational technology as an educational theory and, potentially, as an educational philosophy itself. Regardless, there is no doubt t hat by 1972, the authors of the dei nition of educational technology chose to consider educational technology a i eld of study and not as a specii c theory (Januszewski, 1995, 2001). Educational Technology as a Field h e decision to refer to educational technology as a i eld of study rather than a theory or a branch of theory had at least four results (1) we acknowledged that there was more than one theory of educational technology, ore than one way to think about the role(s) of educational technology (2) the dei nition prompted signii cant philosophical discussions by members of the profession (3) the use of the word i eld encompassed both the hardware and process orientations of instructional technology described by the Presidential Commission (1970) and (4) this dei nition was based on the tangible elements (Ely, 1972) that people could observe. e 1972 dei nition essentially dei ned educational technology by role and function rather than as an abstract concept, as was the case fo r the 1963 dei nition, where educational technology was viewed as a theory. h e concept of i eld has been a thorny one for educational technologists. Like many areas of study within education, it is very dii cult to discuss educational technology without using the word i eld as a descriptor. Certainly audiovisual professionals used the term to describe the audiovisual i eld before the terms instructional technology or educational technology were ever used. e 1963 dei nition statement frequently used i eld (Ely, 1963) to move the discussion along, even though it was argued that educational technology was a theory or branch of theory. On the surface, the use of i eld seems a rather inescapable semantic problem when speaking of educational technology. But it is signii cant that the writers of the 1972 dei nition chose to use i eld rather than theory in the dei nition because the use of the word i eld established a territory. It also provided certain legitimacy to ef orts to advance ER5 861X_C010. ndd 268 ER5861X_C010. indd 268 8/16/07 62426 PM 8/16/07 62426 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECTS DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 269 both products and processes. h e consequences of this decision were anticipated by Finn (1965), who proclaimed Properly constructed, the concept of instructional or educational technology is totally integrative. It provides a common ground for all professionals, no matter in what aspect of the i eld they are working it permits the rational development and integration of new devices, materials, and methods as they come along. e concept is so whole viable that it will not only provide new status for our group, but will, for the i rst time, threaten the status of others italics added. (p. 193) Criticism of the 1972 Dei nition h e 1972 dei nition was not the object of numerous criticisms as was the 1963 dei nition, probably because it was considered only an interim dei nition (Ely, 1994). Only one such article appeared in the literature of the i eld of educational technologya critique was written by Dennis Myers, then a graduate student at Syracuse University, and Lida Cochran, a faculty member at the University of Iowa (Myers & Cochran, 1973). e brief compendium by Myers and Cochran (1973) articulated at least i ve dif erent criticisms. First, they proposed including a statement in the rationale for the dei nition stating that students have a slump of access to technological delivery systems as part of their regular instruction. Including such a statement follows from Hobans (1968) discussion on the appropriateness of technology for instruction in a technological society. Second, Myers and Cochran argued that the 1972 dei nition statement was weakened by neglecting to include a theoretical rationale for the dei nition. is criticism, which correctly pointed out that the dei nition is lacking a unii ed theoretical direction, supported Heinichs (1970) assertions in his philosophical view of the i eld. In a third point, My ers and Cochran (1973) criticized the limited role that the educational technologist was provided in the description of the systems approach provided in the dei nition. In a fourth point, they discussed the shortcomings of the terminology used to discuss the domains and roles in educational technology.Perhaps the most interesting point made in this analysis concerned the relationship of educational technology to the rest of the i eld of education. In noting the problem of dei ning the i eld by the functions performed, Myers and Cochran (1973) pointed to the importance of considering the purpose of education. ER5861X_C010. indd 269 ER5861X_C010. indd 269 8/16/07 62426 PM 8/16/07 62426 PM270 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE What is important is that certain functions get done in education. h at generalization is important because it conveys an attitude that transcends narrow professional nterests and strikes a note of community and cooperativeness, qualities which are essential to the asc endent of problems facing education and society. (p. 13) Here, Myers and Cochran (1973) seemed to be chastising the writers of the 1972 dei nition for being overly concerned with intellectual territory and the roles performed in the i eld of educational technology. h is particular criticism lost only a little of its sharpness when it was viewed in light of earlier comments made about the inappropriateness of the limited role assigned to educational technologists in the dei nition (Januszewski, 2001).In summary, by 1972, the key out of the concept had changed from audiovisual communications to educational technology. h e organizational home for professionals in the i eld had changed name from DAVI to AECT. h ere had been substantial changes in our schools, hardware, and other technological innovations during the nine years since the writing of the i rst dei nition. Educational technology was now identii ed as a i eld of study, open to interpretation by those who practiced within it. e 1972 dei nition rel ected these interpretations but was intend to be only a temporary measure. nearly as soon as it was published, work began on the next dei nition. The 1977 Definition In 1977, the AECT revised its dei nition of educational technology with its third version Educational technology is a complex, integrated process, involving people, procedures, ideas, devices and organization, for analyzing problems and devising, implementing, evaluating and managing solutions to those problems, involved in all aspects of human learning.In educational technology, the solution to problems takes the form of all the Learning Resources that are designed and/or selected and/or utilized to bring about learning these resources are identii ed as Messages, People, Materials, Devices, Techniques, and Settings. h e processes for analyzing problems, and devising, implementing and evaluating solutions are identii ed by the Educational Development Functions of Research h eory, Design, Producti on, Evaluation Selection, Logistics, Utilization, and Utilization Dissemination. h e processes of directing or coordinating one or more of hese functions are identii ed by the Educational Management Functions of Organizational Management and Personnel Management. (AECT, 1977, p. 1) ER5861X_C010. indd 270 ER5861X_C010. indd 270 8/16/07 62427 PM 8/16/07 62427 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECTS DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 271 h e Dei nition of Educational Technology (AECT, 1977) was a 169-page book intended to accomplish two things (a) systematically analyze the complex ideas and concepts that were used in the i eld of educational technology, and (b) show how these concepts and ideas related to one another (Wallington, 1977). is publication included the dei nition of educational technology (which comprises 16 pages of the text), a history of the i eld, a rationale for the dei nition, a theoretical framework for the dei nition, a discussion of the practical application of the intel lectual technique of the i eld, the code of ethics of the professional organization, and a glossary of terms related to the dei nition. Educational Versus Instructional Technology h e conceptual dif erence between the terms educational technology and instructional technology constituted a large portion of the analysis of this book.Understanding how the authors of the 1977 dei nition viewed the relationship of instructional technology to educational technology is essential to understanding the 1977 dei nition and its theoretical framework. h e basic premise of this distinction was that instructional technology was to educational technology as instruction was to education. h e reasoning was that since instruction was considered a subset of education then instructional technology was a subset of educational technology (AECT, 1977). For example, the concept of educational technology was involved in the solution of problems in all aspects of human learning (p. ). h e concept of instructi onal technology was involved in the solution of problems where learning is purposive and controlled (p. 3). Educational Technology as a Process Two other complex conceptual developments were also undertaken by the authors of the 1977 dei nition, which were interrelated. First, the 1977 dei nition of educational technology was called a process (AECT, 1977, p. 1). h e authors intended the term process to connote the idea that educational technology could be viewed as a theory, a i eld, or a profession.Second, the systems concept was infused throughout the entire dei nition statement and in all the major support concepts for the dei nition in both its descriptive and prescriptive senses. h e authors of the 1977 dei nition connected these two conceptual developments by saying that the use of the systems concept was a process (AECT, 1977). As one of the three major supporting concepts for the 1972 dei nition of educational technology, the systems approach had become the basis for the ER 5861X_C010. ndd 271 ER5861X_C010. indd 271 8/16/07 62427 PM 8/16/07 62427 PM272 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE dei nition itself by 1977. h rough their ef orts to reinforce the process conception of educational technology, the leadership of the i eld now assumed that all of the major supporting concepts of the dei nition were tied to, or should be viewed in light of, the systems approach. h e three major supporting concepts of the 1977 dei nition were learning resources, management, and development.Learning resources were any resources utilized in educational systems a descriptive use of the systems concept the writers of the 1977 dei nition called resources by utilization. Authors called the resources specii cally designed for instructional purposes, a prescriptive use of the systems approach, resources by design or instructional system components (AECT, 1977). Like the concept of learning resources, management could be used in a descriptive fashion to describe administrative systems or in a prescriptive way to prescribe action. e concept of management was ot en used as a metaphor for the systems approach in education (Heinich, 1970). h e term instructional development was frequently used to mean the systems approach to instructional development or instructional systems development (Twelker et al. , 1972). h e fact that the management view of the systems approach to instruction ot en included an instructional development process and the fact that instructional development models frequently included management as a task to be completed in the systems pproach to instructional development further intertwined the systems concept with the process view of educational technology. h ese descriptive and prescriptive interpretations of the 1977 dei nition would inl uence future dei nitions. As previously noted, the predilection that educational technology was a process was not new when the 1977 dei nition was written. Process was one of the three major supporting concept s incorporated into the rationale of the 1963 dei nition (Ely, 1963).Believing that educational technology was a process provided one of the major reasons that the leadership of the profession tended to reject the report of the Presidential Commission on Instructional Technology (1970), which focused heavily on the hardware of the i eld in its i rst dei nition of instructional technology. h e authors of the 1977 dei nition, who purposefully used the term process to develop a systematic and congruent scheme for the concept of educational technology, said, h e dei nition presented here dei nes the theory, the i eld, and profession as congruent. is occurs because the dei nition of the i eld of educational technology is directly derived from, and includes, the theory of educational technology, and the profession of educational technology is directly ER5861X_C010. indd 272 ER5861X_C010. indd 272 8/16/07 62428 PM 8/16/07 62428 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECTS DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNO LOGY 273 derived from, and includes, the i eld of educational technology. (AECT, 1977, p. 135) In the end, the ef ort to demonstrate the congruence of the major concepts involved with educational technology created as many issues for the i eld as it resolved.Five immediate advantages for describing educational technology as a process were (1) the use of the term process reinforced the primacy of the process view of educational technology over the product view of educational technology. h e process view had been outlined in the 1963 dei nition statement, but the report of the Presidential Commission on Instructional Technology (1970) appeared to reverse this emphasis. (2) h e term process would ground the dei nition of educational technology in the activities of its practitioners, activities that could be directly observed and verii ed. 3) h e term process could be used to describe educational technology as a theory, a i eld, or a profession. (4) h e term process allowed the further evolution of thought and research around the concept of systems. Finally, (5) an organized process implies the use of research and theory, which would reinforce the idea that educational technology was a profession. Educational Technology as Field, h eory, or Profession h e authors of the 1977 dei nition argued that educational technology could be thought of in three dif erent slipwayas a theoretical construct, as a i eld, and as a profession (AECT, 1977, p. 7). h ey continued, None of the foregoing perspectives is more correct or better than the others. Each is a different way of thinking about the same thing (p. 18). h e writers of the 1977 dei nition argued that the theoretical construct, the i eld, and the profession were all process based. h e term process described and connected all three of these perspectives of educational technology with a single word. Educational technology had been called a theory in the 1963 dei nition (Ely, 1963), and it had been called a i eld in the 1972 dei nition (Ely, 1972).New to the 1977 dei nition was the argument that educational technology was also a profession. forward to the publication of the 1977 dei nition, the term profession was used in passing as it related to educational technology. Since Finn (1953) had argued that the i eld had not yet reached professional status, members of the i eld (e. g. , Silber, 1970) had made few attempts to analyze educational technology systematically as a profession. Using Finns criteria, the writers of the 1977 dei nition argued that educational technology was now a profession.Depending upon the interpretation and application of the systems concept, educational technology could be explained as a theory, a i eld, or a profession ER5861X_C010. indd 273 ER5861X_C010. indd 273 8/16/07 62428 PM 8/16/07 62428 PM274 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE in the 1977 dei nition. h e impact of using the term process to describe educational technology as a theory, a i eld, or a profession hinged on th ese dif ering interpretations of the systems approach, once again prompting discussions and philosophical debates among prominent educational technologists. e period of the 1980s was not so focused on criticism of the 1977 dei nition as much as characterized by broad academic wrangling over the interpretation and application of the dei nition (Januszewski, 1995, 2001). h e three major supporting concepts of the 1977 dei nitionlearning resources, management, and developmentcould also be interpreted dif erently based on divergent conceptions of the systems approach. h e dif erent interpretations of learning resources, management, and development also provided the writers of the 1977 dei nition with a rationale to distinguish between educational technology and instructional technology.The 1994 Definition By 1994, the dei nition of educational technology had nearly come full circle. h e dei nition that was produced in 1994 read, Instructional technology is the theory and practice of des ign, development, utilization, management, and valuation of processes and resources for learning (Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 1). h ere are no new concepts included in the 1994 dei nition. What was new was the identii cation of multiple theoretical and conceptual issues in the explanation of the dei nition. e 1994 dei nition was intended to be much less complex than the 1977 dei nition. h e extent to which the writers were successful can be judged in part by reviewing the criticisms of the 1977 dei nition. h e attempt by the writers of the 1977 dei nition to show the congruence of educational technology and instructional technology revealed a conceptual problem for the i eld. h e dei nition of educational technology, which was concerned with all aspects of human learning (AECT, 1977, p. ), had become so broad that some individuals in the i eld of education pointed out that there was no dif erence between educational technology and curriculum, school administration, or teaching methods (Ely, 1982). Saettler (1990) wryly pointed out that the dei nition had become everything to everybody, and he dubbed the 1977 dei nition the omnibus dei nition. Logical Problems h ere were also sincere l aws in the reasoning and the conceptual interpretations used in the theoretical framework and rationale for the 1977 dei nition of educational technology.Establishing the dif erence between ER5861X_C010. indd 274 ER5861X_C010. indd 274 8/16/07 62428 PM 8/16/07 62428 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECTS DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 275 education and instruction, the authors argued, Education, then, includes two classes of processes not included in instruction those processes related to the administration of instruction . . . and those processes related to situations in which learning occurs when it is not by design managed (AECT, 1977, p. 56).An example of learning not deliberately managed given in the discussion was incidental learning (p. 56). It was reasonable for the authors to argue that nondeliberately managed learning and/or incidental learning was part of the concept of education (Januszewski, 1997). However, the dei nitions of technology by Galbraith (1967), Hoban (1962), and Finn (1960a, 1965), which were used by the authors of the 1977 dei nition to discuss the term technology as it related to the concept of educational technology, all included the ideas of organization, management, and control (AECT, 1977). e writers of the 1977 dei nition considered organization, management, and control critical characteristics of technology but these ideas were contrary to the idea of incidental learning and learning that was not deliberately managed. Education, at least as it was distinguished from instruction included in the rationale of the 1977 dei nition, did not seem compatible with technology. It is dii cult to conceive of a technology of the incidental, unmanaged, and unintended. e gains made in the organization of the framework of the concept of edu cational technology by distinguishing between education and instruction were lost when education was paired with technology (Januszewski, Butler, & Yeaman, 1996). h eory or theoretical construct. h e relationship of educational technology to theory presented another problem in the discussion of educational technology presented in the 1977 dei nition and rationale. ere are three ship canal in which the concept of theory is related to educational technology in the 1977 dei nition statement (1) the thought that educational technology was a theoretical construct (AECT, 1977, pp. 18, 20, 24) (2) the judgement that educational technology itself was a theory (AECT, 1977, pp. 2, 135, 138) and (3) that the dei nition of educational technology was a theory (AECT, 1977, pp. 4, 20, 134). To some degree, all three of these discussions of theory and educational technology are accurate, but they cannot be used interchangeably as they are in the 1977 dei nition.A theoretical construct is not the s ame as a theory nor is it the case, that because a dei nition of a concept is a theory, the concept itself a theory. h e word theory has been used in at least four ways in the literature of the i eld of education (1) the law like theory of the hard sciences (2) theories that are supported by statistical evidence (3) theories that identify variables that inl uence the i eld of study and (4) theory as a systematic analysis of a set of related concepts (Kliebard, 1977). ER5861X_C010. indd 275 ER5861X_C010. ndd 275 8/16/07 62429 PM 8/16/07 62429 PM276 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE h e fourth sense of theory is of interest to this analysis of the 1977 dei nition of educational technology. Systematic analyses of any abstract concept can be said to be theories of that concept. Referring to educational technology as a theoretical construct, or a theory, or calling the dei nition of educational technology a theory may be accurate if the construct or theory includes a systematic analysis of the concept of educational technology. e writers of the 1977 dei nition provided criteria for theory that was not theory as a systematic analysis of related concepts. h e 1977 view of theory was an attempt to establish general principles and predict outcomes (AECT, 1977). h is approach was substantially dif erent from the usage of the word theory in the 1963 dei nition statement. Further confusion arises because of the writers claim that educational technology did indeed meet the criteria for being a predictive theory (Januszewski, 1995, 2001).Certainly educational technology is a theoretical construct. Educational technology may also be considered a theory depending on what exactly is intended by the word theory. The 1977 definition of educational technology is a theory about the abstract concept of educational technology. But because the definition of the concept of educational technology may be a theory of educational technology, it does not necessarily follow that the concept of e ducational technology is itself a theory.This is similar to saying that a definition of the concept of democracy may be a theory of democracy but that the concept of democracy itself is not a theory. Few involved in the field of educational technology adopted this systematic treatment of the concepts provided in the 1977 definition. Many in the field adopted only portions of the definition (e. g. , Gustafson, 1981). Certain parts of the definition and the supporting statements were cited by scholars in order to make erudite points about the field of educational technology (e. . , Romiszowski, 1981), but a reading of the literature of the field during this era reveals that the whole of the conceptual framework provided in the 1977 definition, specifically the part intended to distinguish educational technology from instructional technology, was not widely accepted by the professionals in the field of educational technology (Seels & Richey, 1994). This lack of acceptance led to the label changes in the 1994 definition. Distinguishing between educational and instructional. e ef ort to revise the 1977 dei nition addressed some of the conceptual incongruencies of previous dei nitions. h e i rst of these was the dif erence between educational and instructional technology. Unlike the writers of the 1977 dei nition, who sought to distinguish between educational technology and instructional technology, ER5861X_C010. indd 276 ER5861X_C010. indd 276 8/16/07 62429 PM 8/16/07 62429 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECTS DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 277 the authors of the 1994 dei nition acknowledged that this problem had no booming answer. ey admitted, At present the terms Educational Technology and Instructional Technology are used interchangeably by most professionals in the i eld (p. 5). But they argued, Because the term Instructional Technology (a) is more commonly used today in the United States, (b) encompasses many practice settings, (c) describes more precisely t he function of technology in education, and (d) allows for an emphasis on both instruction and learning in the same dei nitional sentence, the term Instructional Technology is used in the 1994 dei nition, but the two terms are considered synonymous. Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 5) With that, the oi cial label of the i eld was changed from educational technology to instructional technology, although it was quite acceptable to continue to use the term educational technology. Underlying Assumptions Seels and Richey (1994) did dif erentiate the 1994 dei nition from previous dei nitions by identifying and analyzing some of the assumptions that underlie this dei nition. Identii ed assumptions included Instructional technology has evolved from a movement to a i eld and profession.Since a profession is concerned with a knowledge base, the 1994 dei nition must identify and emphasize instructional technology as a i eld of study as well as practice (p. 2). A revised dei nition of the i eld should encompass those areas of concern to practitioners and scholars. h ese areas are the domains of the i eld (p. 2). two process and product are of vital importance to the i eld and need to be rel ected in the dei nition (p. 2). Subtleties not clearly understood or recognized by the typical Instructional Technology professional should be removed from the dei nition and its more extended explanation (p. ). It is assumed that both research and practice in the i eld are carried out in conformity with ethical norms of the profession (p. 3). Instructional technology is characterized by ef ectiveness and ei ciency (p. 3). h e concept of systematic is implicit in the 1994 dei nition because the domains are equivalent to the systematic process for developing instruction (p. 8). ER5861X_C010. indd 277 ER5861X_C010. indd 277 8/16/07 62429 PM 8/16/07 62429 PM278 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE h e inclusion of these ssumptions in the analysis and explanation accompanying the 1994 dei nition a llowed for the publication of a dei nition that was much more economical than were previous dei nition ef orts. h eory and Practice h e authors of the 1994 dei nition stated that the dei nition was composed of four components (a) theory and practice (b) design, development, utilization, management and evaluation (c) processes and resources and (d) learning. h ese components were not necessarily new but in this dei nition, they were reorganized, simplii ed, and connected, in a way making the 1994 dei nition unique. e 1994 dei nition used the phrasing included in the 1963 dei nition when it called instructional technology the theory and practice of. And the authors argued, A profession must have a knowledge base that supports practice (Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 9). h e authors used a simple but rather clear notion that theory consists of the concepts, constructs, principles, and propositions that contribute to the body of knowledge and that practice is the application of the knowledge (p. 11).In so doing, the authors cleared up the problem of the meaning of theory that they had inherited from the writers of the 1977 dei nition, a dei nition of theory that had been too precise. Domains h e concepts (or domains of the 1994 dei nition) of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation comprise the accepted knowledge base of the i eld today as evidenced by the Standards for the Accreditation of School Media Specialist and Educational Technology Specialist Programs (AECT, 2000).When these concepts are taken together and conducted in straight order, they are the same as the stages of development described in the 1977 dei nition. h ese concepts are directly traceable to the idea of educational engineering developed by W. W. Charters (1945). It is important to realize that the authors of the 1994 dei nition did not intend that practitioners of educational technology perform all of these tasks in the sequential order. Specializing in or focusing on one of these tasks would include broad practitioners in the i eld (Seels & Richey, 1994).Seels and Richey (1994) provided dei nitions of processes and resources A process is a series of operations or activities directed towards a particular end (p. 12). Resources are sources of support for learning, including support systems and instructional materials and environments (p. 12). h ese descriptions allowed the authors to (a) use process to reinforce notions of ER5861X_C010. indd 278 ER5861X_C010. indd 278 8/16/07 62430 PM 8/16/07 62430 PM10.A HISTORY OF THE AECTS DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 279 engineering and science in instruction (b) adjudge the distinction between resources as things and processes and (c) be consistent with terminology used in all three previous dei nitions. h e concept of learning was not new to the 1994 dei nition however, the dei nition of learning intended by the authors was new. In previous dei nitions, the term learning was intended to connote a change i n behavior such as advocated by Tyler (1950). But the authors of the 1994 dei nition wanted to move away from a strong behaviorist orientation. ey argued, In this dei nition learning refers to the relatively permanent change in a persons knowledge or behavior due to experience (Mayer, 1982, as cited in Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 12). Including the phrase due to experience also aided in moving away from causal connections and allowed for incidental learning. h is interpretation signaled the acceptance of a dif erent kind of science in education one less grounded on prediction and control and more interested in applying other theoretical and research principles to the instructional process.Criticism of the 1994 Dei nition h e primary criticism of the 1994 dei nition is that instructional technology appeared to look too much like the systems approach to instructional development while changes in the practice of the i eld (e. g. , constructivistbased initiatives and the general acceptance of computer innovations in classroom methodologies) made the 1994 dei nition too restrictive for mainstream teachers and school administrators as well as researchers and scholars. h ese criticisms and further evolution of the research and practice in the i eld led to a need for reconsideration and evision of this dei nition at er more than a decade of use. The original Definition h e task force empanelled by AECT to review the 1994 dei nition wrestled with the historical issues presented here and with other issues of perception, changing employment and training expectations, semantics, and a strong desire to develop a dei nition that both served to include the broad variety of practitioners in this i eld and one which would prompt renewed attention to the theory and research so critical to our continued contributions to learning.In a sense, we are not so far removed in this century from the professional goal stated in the 1963 dei nition ER5861X_C010. indd 279 ER5861X_C010. indd 2 79 8/16/07 62430 PM 8/16/07 62430 PM280 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE It is the responsibility of educational leaders to respond intelligently to technological change . . . If the DAVI membership is to support the leadership in such bold steps, dei nition and terminology as a basis for direction of professional growth is a prime prerequisite . . Now that the i eld of audiovisual communications, the largest single segment of the growing technology of instruction, has reached the point of decision making, we i nd ourselves in the same quandary other i elds have discovered when they have attempted to dei ne their i elds i. e. , dei nition exists at various levels of understanding but no one dei nition can be the dei nition. (Ely, 1963, pp. 1618)And so, the latest in the line of dei nitions of educational technology Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processe s and resources. References Association for Educational Communications and Technology. (1972). h e i eld of educational technology A statement of dei nition. Audiovisual Instruction, 17, 3643. Association for Educational Communications and Technology. (1977). h e dei nition of educational technology. 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